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Nonconsumptive predator effect

Causation & process

An effect of a predator on prey that occurs without the predator killing the affected individual, including changes in behavior, habitat use, activity, or foraging caused by predation risk.

Schmitz, O. J., Beckerman, A. P., & O'Brien, K. M. (1997). Behaviorally mediated trophic cascades: Effects of predation risk on food web interactions. Ecology, 78(5), 1388–1399. Ripple, W. J., Estes, J. A., Schmitz, O. J., et al. (2016). What is a trophic cascade? Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 31(11), 842–849.